ADHD

Introduction

ADHD is a common neurodevelopmental condition affecting 5% of children and 2.5% of adults. In recent years, there has been increasing interest in the relationship between ADHD and nutrition. It is three times more frequent among males than females and is often linked with other neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders. ADHD is characterised by varying degrees of inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity, leading to impaired functioning (1).

Several harmful consequences are associated with ADHD, including deficient academic/work performance, social isolation, aggressive behaviour (including delinquency and illegal acts) and even premature death from unnatural causes (such as accidents) (1).

In this guide: Symptoms · Causes · Diet and lifestyle basics · Hydration · Vitamins and minerals · Physical activity · Omega-3 · Food additives · The science of nutritional therapy · Sugar and blood sugar · Fats and omega-3 in depth · Micronutrients · Saffron · Next steps

This article was updated on [01/09/2026] to include the latest research on nutrition-based approaches to ADHD.

Background

This section will explore symptoms and causes of ADHD.

Symptoms

Symptoms of ADHD can present differently in children and adults, and impact on attention, impulsivity and hyperactivity.

Inattention

Children and adults with inattention symptoms associated with ADHD would struggle to focus and pay attention to detail or make foolish mistakes when working or playing. They might not complete a given task, find it challenging to sustain attention for an extended period, and often forget belongings (2).

The main signs of inattentiveness are:

Reduced attention span and easily distracted.
Attempting careless mistakes in school or work.
Struggling with organizational skills such as time management.
Frequently losing or forgetting everyday belongings.
Struggle to commit to arduous or time-consuming activities.
Appearing not to listen while others are talking or when instructions are given

Hyperactivity and Impulsivity

Children and adults with hyperactivity and impulsivity symptoms often feel the need for constant movement. Children frequently act as though they are “powered by a motor” and run around a lot. People of various ages may find themselves talking nonstop, interrupting others, blurting out replies, and lacking in self-control. (2).

The main signs of hyperactivity and impulsiveness are:

Frequently “on-the-go” and unable to sit still.
Excessive physical movement and talking while interrupting conversations.
Inability to focus on a task.
Attempting unnecessary risks.
Impatient.
Fidgeting or tapping the hands or feet

Related Conditions

Several children may also exhibit additional signs of other conditions alongside ADHD, including anxiety disorder, conduct disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, depression, sleep problems, autistic spectrum disorder (ASD), dyspraxia, epilepsy, Tourette’s syndrome and dyslexia (2)

The signs mentioned above and related conditions with ADHD can lead to severe issues in a child’s life, including academic underachievement, poor social contact with other children and adults, and discipline issues.

Symptoms in Adults

The symptoms of ADHD among adults are more difficult to identify. This is because of a lack of studies on adults with ADHD (2)

Because ADHD is a developmental condition, it is thought that it cannot manifest in adults without first manifesting in childhood. However, ADHD symptoms in adolescents and teenagers can persist into adulthood. The effects of inattentiveness, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness on adults differ significantly from those on children. Adult hyperactivity, for example, tends to lessen as stresses of adult life mount, but inattentiveness tends to persist. Adult ADHD symptoms are also milder than those seen in children.

The symptoms of ADHD among adults includes:

Inattention to detail and carelessness.
New tasks are always being started before old ones are completed.
Poor organisational skills.
Inability to focus or prioritise.
Losing or misplacing items on a regular basis.
Forgetfulness.
Restlessness and edginess.
Having trouble being silent and speaking out of turn.
Interrupting others and blurting forth responses.
Emotional ups and downs, impatience, and a short fuse.
A lack of capacity to cope with stress.
Extreme impatience with taking risks in activities, typically with little or no concern for one’s own or others’ safety – for example, driving recklessly.

It is worth noting that adult ADHD can coexist with a variety of other issues or disorders including personality disorders, bipolar disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) (2).

For adult-specific detail — including how symptoms and diagnosis rates differ between men and women – see Managing ADHD in Adults: A Nutritional Approach.

Causes

Although the precise causation of ADHD is unknown, several variables are believed to be responsible, including (2) (3) (4):

GGenetics: In most cases, it’s believed that the genes you acquire from parents play a crucial role in developing the disorder because ADHD tends to run in families. Research of 894 ADHD subjects and 1135 of their siblings aged 5–17 years old showed a ninefold increased risk of ADHD in siblings of individuals with ADHD compared with siblings of controls
A brain injury that changes brain structure and function.
Exposure to stress, alcohol, or tobacco during pregnancy or from a young age may cause imbalances in the level of neurotransmitters in the brain, or these chemicals may not work correctly .
A low birth weight or born prematurely (before the 37th week of pregnancy)

ADHD Nutrition & Lifestyle Interventions

ADHD was never going to have a single-nutrient fix. It’s a whole-body picture, where gut bacteria, blood sugar, fatty acids and even a bread preservative can all be pulling in the same direction at once. That’s not a discouraging way to think about it; it’s actually the useful part, because it means there are several real levers to pull rather than one miracle ingredient to track down. What follows goes through the foundational diet and lifestyle changes, then some of the more specific questions people ask – coconut oil, calcium, gut bacteria, casein and more – and says plainly where the evidence is solid, where it’s genuinely promising, and where it’s still just a theory worth watching.

Encourage a Wide and Varied Diet

NICE guidelines recommend that children, young people and adults living with ADHD follow and appreciate the value of a balanced diet, good nutrition and regular exercise (5). Therefore, the approach for people with ADHD overall health and nutrition is a diet limiting sugary and processed foods and rich in fruits, vegetables, grains, and healthy fats, such as omega-3 fatty acids.

A study showed that high intakes of fruit and vegetables might help reduce inattention issues. Another more extensive study where researchers surveyed parents of 134 kids with ADHD symptoms to fill a detailed questionnaire about the typical foods the children ate, including portion sizes, over 90 days. Another questionnaire asked parents to rate symptoms of inattention, which is a hallmark of ADHD, in their kids, including difficulty staying focused, not following instructions, difficulty remembering things, and difficulty regulating emotions. Results showed that children who consumed more significant amounts of fruits and vegetables showed less severe symptoms of inattention (6). The study also investigated the efficacy of a 36-ingredient vitamin and mineral supplement to address symptoms of ADHD and poor emotional control. The findings showed that children who consumed the micronutrients had three times higher significant improvement in their ADHD and emotional dysregulation symptoms.

Key Actions for Improving Diet Variety

A healthy balanced diet is vital for all children to ensure all nutritional requirements are satisfied, whilst supporting normal growth and development. Children and adults with ADHD should be advised to implement a balanced diet including a wide range of colourful vegetables and fruits, nuts, seeds, lean meats, fish and dairy products (7). Wholegrains should also be used rather than refined alternatives, as these varieties are higher fibre and can increase alertness while decreasing hyperactivity (8). Snacks can be used when appetite is reduced, or improved weight gain is required (9). However, these snacks should not be high sugar or processed foods, but rather healthier alternatives, such as celery or cucumber sticks and hummus, fresh fruit or natural yogurt with nut butter.

Ensure Hydration

Fluid intake is vital to maintain hydration. Intake of fruit juices and full-sugar drinks should be restricted. Water is essential as the capillaries in the brain dilate if dehydrated. In sustained dehydration, brain cells shrink, affecting children’s brain functions. Children had shown improved IQ scores when they consumed more water (10).

Key Actions for Increasing Fluid Intake

Sometimes individuals can find it hard to remember, and therefore the below strategies may be helpful for habit formation:

Decant into a container your water for the day and place in the fridge. Set yourself the challenge to empty that container daily.
Add lemon, lime or berries to water to give it a fruity kick and bright colour.
Children may enjoy using reward charts with stickers to encourage them to drink more
Drink caffeine free herbal teas like peppermint, liquorice and chamomile, as these are so great ways of increasing hydration
Set a phone reminder to help develop positive and regular drinking habits
Where there are set routines, try to factor in hydration as a part of this. For example, drinking as part of travelling to and from work or on the school run, or at the same time as checking emails, feeding pets, doing regular errands and preparing meals

Address Vitamin and Mineral Deficiencies

If a range of foods is restricted in the diet, children and young people may benefit from an age-appropriate over-the-counter vitamin and mineral supplement to avoid deficiencies.

Several studies highlight that deficiencies of nutrients, mainly iron, zinc, magnesium, and vitamin B6, are linked with ADHD symptoms. It has therefore been proposed that addressing such deficiencies may help to reduce ADHD symptoms severity. One piece of research focused on the contribution of iron and zinc supplementation in ADHD among children and adolescents, and demonstrated that low zinc and iron levels were associated with impaired attention capacity and increased hyperactivity, highlighting a pathway mediated by the dopaminergic system. In the study, Zinc supplementation was observed to consistently improve ADHD symptoms (9).

Side effects: Supplements can cause side effects in some individuals, therefore it is essential to consult a doctor and registered dietitian or nutrition practitioner before commencing any supplements.

Contraindications with medication: see above.

Increase Physical Activity

Research suggests that physical movement positively influences brain function among children and adults via improving cognitive processes such as planning, time management, inhibition and working memory. For patients with ADHD, regular physical activity improves brain blood flow and balances brain chemicals such as dopamine, noradrenaline and serotonin. This may have a variety of positive brain health outcomes, including improving memory and concentration, decreasing hyperactivity and impulsivity, elevating mood, and supporting individuals with symptoms of anxiety and depression (11). In one 2019 study, authors reported that children with ADHD developed better impulse control and attention after a 20-minute aerobic exercise session (12).

Key Actions for Increasing Physical Activity

The NHS recommends regarding physical activity:

Toddlers (aged 1 to 2): advised to physically active every day for at least 180 minutes (3 hours) throughout the day, including playing outdoors.
Pre-schoolers (aged 3 to 4): advised to physically active every day for at least 180 minutes (3 hours) throughout the day, including playing outdoors. The 180 minutes should also comprise of at least 60 minutes (1 hour) of moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity.
Children and young people aged 5 to 18: incorporate an average of at least 60 minutes of moderate or vigorous intensity physical activity daily across the week and participate a range of types and intensities of physical activity across the week to develop movement skills, muscles and bones.
Adults aged 19 to 64: do at least 150 minutes of moderate intensity activity a week or 75 minutes of vigorous intensity activity a week spread exercise evenly over 4 to 5 days a week, or every day.

Increase Omega 3 Fats

Polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) in supplementation, including fish oil particularly omega-3 or omega-6 fatty-acid, is not a current approved treatment for ADHD. The evidence for its influence on ADHD symptoms is mixed. A study showed that it has a small effect for ADHD symptoms, however review concluded “there is limited evidence that PUFA supplementation contributes with benefits for the ADHD symptoms improvement (13). Omega-3 fatty acids can help in supporting brain function. Some studies show that omega-3s help with hyperactivity, impulsivity, and concentration among children and adults with ADHD (14). Balanced diet, based on eat well plate of two weekly portions of oily fish (such as salmon, herring, mackerel and sardines) or seeds such as flaxseeds and linseeds, is sufficient to meet daily omega-3 or omega-6 fatty-acid daily requirements. NICE guidelines does not advise supplementing patients with dietary fatty acid supplementation for treating ADHD among children and young people.

Key Actions for Increasing Omega 3 Fats

Eat oily fish, such as salmon, mackerel and sardines, at least twice a week, and seeds, such as flaxseeds (also called linseeds) and chia seeds, on most days. Furthermore, supplement omega 3 through fish oil or a vegan alternative. Look for a supplement that contains both EPA and DHA.

The best fish for EPA, the type of omega 3 fat that’s been most thoroughly researched are: mackerel (1,400mg per 100g/3oz), herring/kipper (1,000mg), sardines (1,000mg), fresh (not tinned) tuna (900mg), anchovy (900mg), salmon(800mg), trout (500mg). Tuna, being high in mercury, is best avoided in autism due to heavy metal considerations.

The best seeds are flax seeds and chia seeds. Flax seeds are so small they are best ground and sprinkled on cereal. Alternatively, use flaxseed oil, for example in salad dressings. While technically providing omega 3 only about 5% of the type of omega 3 (alpha linolenic acid) in these seeds is converted in your body into EPA. Therefore individuals who are following a plant based diet may benefit from supplementing with vegan omega 3 supplements.

Side effects: Causes loose stools in sensitive individuals if they are started on too high a dose.

Contraindications with medication: Essential fats may have a ‘blood-thinning’ effect and should not be mixed with ‘blood thinning’ medication, such as warfarin or heparin. Always consult your doctor before commencing a new supplement.

Eliminate Food Additives

Recent studies indicates a possible association between intake of artificial additives and increased hyperactivity through affecting the mesolimbic dopamine system however, there is not enough strong evidence at the moment to support this approach as a form of treatment (15). NICE guidelines does not recommend elimination of artificial coloring and additives from the diet as a generally applicable treatment for children and young people with ADHD.

The NHS encourages to take into account omitting the following colourings if you or your child exhibits hyperactivity after eating certain foods including the ones shown in table 1. NICE guidelines advises to eliminate the certain food or drinks that has a clear influence on you, or your child’s hyperactive behaviour. If you suspect that this is the case with you or your child, implementing a food diary to evaluate if there is an association between certain foods and behaviour might be useful in creating a specific dietary elimination under the supervision of dietitian, mental health specialist or paediatrician, and the parent or carer and child or young person.

Disclaimer: Always discuss with your doctor before beginning any supplements

Researcher: Ruwaida Ben Sufi, BSc Clinical Nutrition, MSc Obesity and Clinical Nutrition, MSc Dietetics

Useful Resources

NHS, 2022. Eating well with ADHD. [online] Enherts-tr.nhs.uk. Available at:

NICE, 2019. Overview | Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: diagnosis and management | Guidance | NICE. [online] Nice.org.uk. Available at:

ADHD and Nutrition: The Role of Nutritional Therapy

ADHD is usually discussed in terms of attention, impulsivity and hyperactivity. But there is another question worth asking: what are we actually feeding an ADHD brain? The food we eat provides the glucose, fats, amino acids, vitamins and minerals from which the brain has to produce energy, build cell membranes and make neurotransmitters. ADHD tends to run in families, but there is no single “ADHD gene,” and its development is far more complex than genetics or nutrition alone. This matters because while nutrition should never be presented as the one “cure” for ADHD, neither should we assume that the nutritional environment has no influence on how the brain develops and functions.

Our focus has always been on prevention, and that starts earlier than we might think. The developing brain depends on the nutritional environment provided in utero, and research is beginning to identify associations between maternal nutrient status and later neurodevelopmental outcomes. A recent systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis found that higher maternal vitamin D levels during pregnancy were associated with a modestly lower risk of ADHD diagnosis in offspring (16). Once we move into childhood and adulthood, the same fundamental principle remains: the brain needs the right raw materials and a reliable supply of energy to function well. Nutritional therapy therefore gives us an opportunity to look at potentially modifiable factors that may support the ADHD brain throughout life.

ADHD Diet: Start with the Whole Diet

One of the most useful shifts in nutritional research has been away from searching for a single “ADHD nutrient or superfood” and towards looking at the whole diet. A systematic review and meta-analysis involving 8,816 participants found that healthier dietary patterns, typically richer in vegetables, fruit, legumes and fish, were associated with lower odds of ADHD, while Western and “junk food” dietary patterns were associated with higher odds (17). This doesn’t mean an unhealthy diet causes ADHD, and the relationship may work in both directions. What often doesn’t get considered in research is that having ADHD itself can make planning meals, shopping, cooking and regulating food choices considerably harder. But it gives a more useful starting point: improving the nutritional environment of the brain rather than searching for one miracle food or supplement.

That picture has been strengthened by newer research into ultra-processed foods. A 2026 study followed 3,643 children from the Pelotas Birth Cohort in Brazil, looking at food consumption at ages two, four and six to seven. Children who consistently consumed the most unprocessed or minimally processed foods had ADHD symptom scores around 6% lower, while repeated high consumption of ultra-processed foods was associated with scores around 13 to 16% higher (18). This observational study adds to the growing evidence linking overall dietary quality with ADHD symptoms. So it seems no matter what age you are and whether you are looking to prevent dementia or optimise and support your neurodevelopment, there is power in using food for your brain.

What about sugar and blood sugar?

Most of us have heard the advice to limit sweets and sugary drinks in children with ADHD (and we would argue to limit them in general — young and old!). Perhaps unsurprisingly, a 2026 systematic review found plenty to support that advice: 15 of 16 observational studies looking at added sugars, sweetened drinks, sweets or sweet dietary patterns reported links with ADHD diagnosis, greater symptom severity, hyperactivity or other less favourable outcomes (19).

But the more interesting story goes beyond sugar. The review brought together 48 studies examining carbohydrate intake more broadly, including refined carbohydrates, whole grains, fibre, and the glycaemic index and glycaemic load of the diet. Although there were fewer studies in these areas, higher-quality, fibre-rich carbohydrate patterns generally pointed towards more favourable ADHD-related outcomes, while studies of higher-GI and higher-GL diets tended to point in the opposite direction. Overall, carbohydrate quality was more consistently associated with ADHD-related outcomes than the total amount of carbohydrate eaten (19).

This shifts the conversation from simply asking whether someone eats too many sweets or fizzy drinks to looking at the quality of their carbohydrate intake as a whole. How much comes from fibre-rich whole grains, beans, lentils, vegetables and other minimally processed foods, and how much from refined, rapidly absorbed carbohydrates? This is a much more useful question because it looks at how the brain is being fuelled across the whole day, not just at the obvious sugary foods.

More research is needed to understand exactly how important carbohydrate quality is specifically for ADHD. But we know that carbohydrate quality and healthy blood sugar regulation are important for brain health more broadly. This is why lower glycaemic load (GL) eating is a core part of our COGNITION Programme™. Rather than removing carbohydrates, the focus is on choosing slower-release, fibre-rich sources and combining them with protein and healthy fats, which helps provide the brain with a steadier supply of energy throughout the day.

Don’t forget the fats that build your brain

After decades of being told to fear fat, it is worth remembering something fundamental: our brains need fat. Omega-3 fatty acids, particularly EPA and DHA, are important components of brain cell membranes and play key roles in signalling, inflammation and communication between neurons. Their importance reaches far beyond ADHD, with omega-3 status studied in relation to cognitive function, healthy ageing and dementia, as well as attention, learning and behaviour.

When we think about nutritionally supporting someone with ADHD, getting these foundations right is a sensible place to start. Omega-3 status can also be measured rather than guessed, which is why we include it within our DRIfT® at-home blood test and also offer omega-3 testing individually. This means you can stop wondering if you are getting enough omega-3s in your diet and know exactly what your level is and if you need more support.

Oily fish such as sardines, mackerel and salmon are among the richest dietary sources of EPA and DHA, and regular intake is one practical way to support healthy levels. Omega-3 is one of the most researched nutritional areas in ADHD, particularly in relation to attention, learning and behaviour. We explore this ADHD-specific research, along with practical ways to increase omega-3 intake, in more detail in The Attention Deficit Disaster: Managing ADHD in Adults.

Key Nutrients for ADHD

Rather than searching for a single nutrient for ADHD, some of the most interesting research has looked at what happens when a broad spectrum of vitamins and minerals are provided together. Professor Julia Rucklidge, a member of our Scientific Advisory Board, and colleagues have been investigating this approach for a number of years. In a randomised controlled trial of 93 children with ADHD, broad-spectrum micronutrients produced greater improvements in clinician-rated inattention, emotional regulation, aggression and general functioning compared with placebo (21).

This was followed by the larger MADDY trial, involving 135 children aged six to twelve with ADHD and irritability. After eight weeks, 54% of those receiving broad-spectrum micronutrients were rated as responders by blinded clinicians, compared with 18% receiving placebo (20). These findings fit with the systems-based approach we take to brain health: rather than searching for one nutrient, pathway or intervention, we look at the wider nutritional and biological environment in which the brain is functioning.

Our Head of Research, Professor Tommy Wood, has spoken extensively about this approach in relation to dementia prevention, but the principle is equally relevant when thinking about ADHD. The brain relies on many interconnected systems and a complex network of vitamins and minerals to support energy production, neurotransmitter synthesis and normal brain function. Looking at nutritional adequacy as a whole, and building a varied, nutrient-rich diet, therefore makes far more sense than searching for a single “ADHD nutrient.”

An emerging area: saffron. Does it live up to the hype?

If you’ve searched online for natural ways to support ADHD, you’ve probably come across saffron. It is increasingly appearing in supplements, social media posts and adverts promising benefits for attention, mood and behaviour in both children and adults. And there is some interesting science behind the excitement.

A 2024 systematic review examined clinical trials using saffron either alone or alongside methylphenidate and concluded that the results were promising (22). However, the entire review included only four studies and 118 participants, so this is still a small and emerging evidence base. Saffron may prove to have a useful role as larger and better-designed trials are completed, and it is certainly an area worth watching.

For now, though, we would put the foundations first. Before searching for the newest supplement, look at the quality of the overall diet, carbohydrate and blood sugar regulation, omega-3 status and whether the brain is getting the broad range of micronutrients it needs. Saffron is interesting, but it shouldn’t distract us from getting the basics right.

What Does an ADHD Diet Actually Look Like?

The research may still be evolving, but there is plenty we can act on now. If you or your child has ADHD, start with the foundations: dramatically reduce sugary foods and sweetened drinks, look at the quality of carbohydrates across the whole diet, eat adequate protein and fibre, include plenty of vegetables and whole foods, and make healthy fats, particularly omega-3, a regular part of the diet. For some people these will be small adjustments. For others, particularly where ultra-processed foods and refined carbohydrates have become everyday staples, it could mean a significant change in how they eat.

Knowing what to do and being able to do it are not always the same thing, particularly with ADHD. Executive-function difficulties can make remembering to eat, planning meals, shopping and cooking harder, while impulsivity, sensory differences and disordered eating can add another layer of complexity. This is where personalisation and the right support matter. The best diet on paper is useless if it is too complicated, restrictive or unrealistic to follow, so the goal is to make these foundations achievable within the realities of someone’s life.

ADHD is complex, and supporting an ADHD brain was never going to come down to one nutrient, supplement or “superfood.” Our approach is to get the foundations right, measure what we can, and look at brain health as an interconnected system. Prevention means acting on what we can change. And whether we’re talking about ADHD, cognitive decline or simply keeping our brains working well for as long as possible, good nutrition gives us somewhere practical to start.

Take the next step

You can take our DRIfT test to measure five key brain-health biomarkers, or choose an individual omega-3 or other biomarker test if you want to start more specifically.
For a deeper dive into the science and practical steps for supporting your brain through nutrition and lifestyle, Patrick Holford’s Upgrade Your Brain book brings together our wider approach to brain health at every age and stage.
And if you’d like to put these principles into practice, become a FRIEND of Food for the Brain to access our COGNITION Programme, which takes you step by step through the key areas of nutrition and lifestyle that support lifelong brain health.

Disclaimer: Always discuss with your doctor before beginning any supplements, or before making significant changes to diet, especially if pregnant, have a medical condition, or are taking medication.